What is extra-time?
When we think of soccer matches, we often envision the traditional 90-minute game that defines most league competitions. Much of our understanding of soccer player performance comes from scientific studies focused on this standard duration, whether in actual matches or simulations. However, recent research has begun to explore the toll that extra time takes on players to determine whether practitioners should adjust their strategies before, during, and after matches that extend to 120 minutes.
Extra time has been a feature of tournament soccer for over a century, included in the rules of the English Football Association and more recently adopted in FIFA regulations. In certain knockout tournament scenarios—such as the FIFA World Cup, UEFA Champions League, and English FA Cup—if a match remains tied after 90 minutes, an additional 30 minutes, known as extra time, is played to determine a winner.
This raises an important question: Should practitioners modify their training and match strategies considering the potential impact of extra time?
Match performance
Research demonstrates that players cover approximately 12% less total distance [1, 2], and 18% less high-speed distance (≥14.1 km/h) [2, 3], and perform around 23% fewer sprints [1, 2], and 14% fewer accelerations and decelerations [1] during extra-time relative to 90 minutes duration (i.e., meters per minute). At the technical level, the total number of successful dribbles (−36%), successful passes (−31%), total passes (−30%), and the total time the ball remains in play (−16%) is also reduced during the last 15 minutes of extra-time versus the first 15 minutes of European soccer matches [4]. Therefore, it is evident that players do not perform to the same levels during the extra-time period relative to match compared to the preceding 90 minutes of match-play.
One could argue that players often ease off during extra time, opting for more defensive tactics in anticipation of a penalty shootout. Unintentional pacing strategies may also be adopted subconsciously as players try to conserve energy and minimise the risk of injury. However, the decline in performance during extra time has largely been attributed to fatigue. As the duration of the match extends, fatigue is thought to become a significant barrier to maintaining performance, making it difficult for players to sustain the same intensity throughout the full 120 minutes. Introducing substitutions during extra time could effectively counteract performance declines, as players that enter the field during extra-time, cover greater distances and perform more sprints than those who started the match [5]. Individual players experiencing fatigue during 120-minute matches should be substituted, particularly now that FIFA has authorised a fourth substitution during extra time—a change supported by applied practitioners [6].
Fatigue
It is well documented that fatigue progressively increases over the course of a 90-minute match [7]. While match running profiles decline during extra time, the degree to which fatigue accumulates over the full 120 minutes has received less attention. Nonetheless, existing literature consistently reports that both vertical jump height and linear sprint speed, as measured by 15m and 30m sprint assessments, are significantly impaired during extra time [8-11]. Similar patterns are observed with reactive strength index, with the decrements persisting for up to 72 hours post both 90 and 120 of simulated match-play [12]. Data also shows that fatigue induced decrements in eccentric knee flexor strength (−7 ─11%) are observed post 120-minutes of simulated soccer match-play, although these changes in muscle function capacity tend to be restored by 72 hours [12, 13]. While these patterns of fatigue are evident, the precise aetiology and specific sites of fatigue are less well established. For example, peripheral fatigue refers to reduced muscle contractility occurring at the neuromuscular junction or within the muscle itself. In contrast, central fatigue originates in the central nervous system, leading to decreased activation of motor neurons, which can result in diminished muscular activation [14].
As shown in Figure 1, recent research found that muscle glycogen decreases by 29% from pre-match levels to 90 minutes, and by an additional 30% from 90 minutes to extra time [15]. By the end of extra time, around 75% of both slow- and fast-twitch fibres in the vastus lateralis of the dominant leg were depleted or had very low glycogen. This finding indicates that the additional demands of extra time challenge muscle (and likely liver) glycogen reserves more significantly than the preceding 90 minutes. Laboratory-based research has also demonstrated higher plasma glycerol, non-esterified fatty acids, and adrenaline as well as lower blood lactate and glucose are observed during extra-time [11], which is indicative of an increased rate of lipolysis. Collectively, these findings corroborate the decline in high-speed and sprint performance, as evidence suggests that high-speed running heavily relies on muscle glycogen as a primary fuel source for rapid ATP resynthesis [16]. These results were later substantiated through direct measures of gas exchange, with the findings suggesting temporal increases in fat oxidation throughout 90 minutes and into the extra-time period of a treadmill-based simulation [17].
Another laboratory-based investigation found that extra time induced further neuromuscular fatigue primarily involving the central nervous system. This resulted in significant reductions in the voluntary activation of the knee extensors and maximum voluntary quadriceps force measured at 120 minutes compared to pre-match, halftime, and 90 minutes [18]. Other works have revealed a decreased muscle excitation in the rectus femoris of the kicking leg during high velocity sprinting in response to an additional extra-time period [13]. This suggests that central fatigue, indicated by reduced surface electromyography activity, may increasingly become a limiting factor as exercise duration extends. Therefore, the fatigue experienced during extra time appears to stem from both peripheral factors—such as within-muscle contractile failure and substrate depletion—and central factors, including reduced neural drive and impaired excitation-contraction coupling. Subsequently, impairing dynamic high intensity motion.
Interestingly, researchers have developed innovative methods, including a 120-minute motorised treadmill-based soccer match simulation [17]. This research aimed to facilitate the implementation of fixed periods of activity while eliminating pacing elements, as the speed of the treadmill belt remains constant until actively adjusted. The findings indicated that movement efficiency was compromised when players were required to maintain the same activity levels and running speeds during extra time as in the initial 90 minutes. Locomotor efficiency was assessed using a three-dimensional tracking device capable of detecting fatigue-induced changes in movement quality, which may correlate with injury incidence trends [19]. Thus, this study supports the idea that players adopt pacing strategies to reduce injury risk during extra time, although further research is needed to substantiate these findings.
Recovery and injury-risk
Insufficient recovery periods between matches can hinder a player’s ability to perform optimally in consecutive games [20]. Evidence suggests that a 72-hour recovery period following a 90-minute match may be insufficient for the recovery of 20m linear sprint speed, concentric knee flexor strength, and maximal voluntary contraction of the knee extensors [20]. Extra-time matches often occur within congested schedules during a season or tournament, adding demands that can impede recovery. In principle, the increased volume of extra time can prolong the recovery process after 120-minute matches. This may negatively impact performance and increase the risk of injury in subsequent games. This notion may explain why approximately 90% of practitioners believe that extra time delays recovery [21], and adjust their recovery practices accordingly after 120-minute matches compared to 90-minute games [6].
To delve into the literature, research shows that creatine kinase concentrations increase significantly in Premier League players at 24 hours (236% ± 92%) and 48 hours (107% ± 89%) following extra-time matches. However, this study did not compare these levels to those observed after 90-minute matches. A case report tracking four professional soccer players over three competitive matches within a 7-day period found that playing an extra-time match negatively affected wellness (−13 ± 5%) and countermovement jump height (−6 ± 9%) 36 hours post-match, compared to 36 hours after a 90-minute match [22]. Additionally, the extra-time match appeared to impair high-speed running in the following match, suggesting that players may not have fully recovered 36 hours later [22]. However, it is important to note that for tournament format competitions, matches are typically separated by a 72 hour recovery period.
Recent research comparing a 90-minute soccer match simulation to a 120-minute simulation revealed that creatine kinase levels were 53% higher 24 hours after the 120-minute match and remained significantly elevated by 58% up to 72 hours later [12]. Therefore, while there is a notable increase in creatine kinase response following extra time, there is limited evidence to suggest that recovery practices need to be adapted specifically for extra-time matches during congested fixture schedules. However, the ongoing debate about the extent to which elevated creatine kinase levels reflect muscle cell damage makes it challenging to use this marker alone for practical decision-making. Therefore, since the measures considered functionally relevant do not change substantially, there is currently no logical reason to prevent training from proceeding as normal after 120-minute matches. It is also crucial for practitioners to recognise that if reducing training load and intensity is necessary for recovery after extra-time matches, they must ensure that maintaining players’ fitness remains a key priority. Implementing targeted training programmes prior to competitions can also prepare players for matches that may go into extra time. While it can be challenging to identify the optimal timing for these programmes during congested tournament schedules, doing so is essential for minimising injury risk and enhancing player performance.
A separate investigation found that mechanical efficiency declines with exercise duration over 120 minutes of soccer, characterised by a reduced vertical contribution and increased laterality in running technique [17]. These negative effects coincide with the highest incidence of contact-related injuries during this additional timeframe [23]. However, until recently, there had been no efforts to measure changes in the modifiable risk factors for injury. Our research group recently evaluated changes in sprinting and landing mechanics across 120 minutes of soccer-specific exercise. This study provided preliminary evidence that both landing and sprinting techniques were compromised following extra time compared to earlier measures (unpublished data), suggesting a heightened susceptibility to anterior cruciate ligament and hamstring injuries during this period. Table 1 shows changes in the Sprint Mechanics Assessment Score (S-MAS) across 120-minutes of soccer-specific exercise. The S-MAS is a novel qualitative screening tool designed to evaluate the overall movement quality of sprinting mechanics [24]. To provide context, an increasing S-MAS score for an individual criterion indicates suboptimal sprinting technique and a potentially higher risk of injury, while lower scores reflect optimal running technique and a reduced likelihood of injury.
Nutritional provision
Alongside physical performance, nutritional provision is a critical factor to consider in the context of extra time. Nutritional ergogenic aids are commonly prescribed to soccer players to reduce fatigue [25], with practitioners recognising the importance of adapting nutritional strategies during the extra-time period [6]. One study found that carbohydrate (CHO)-electrolyte gels (0.7 g/kg body mass) administered acutely before extra time improved dribbling precision by 29 ± 20% in English Premier League academy players, although there were no improvements in physical capacity (i.e., sprinting and jumping ability) compared to an energy-free placebo [10].
Further research demonstrated that isomaltose maintained blood glucose concentrations better than maltodextrin between the 75th and 90th minutes when consumed during the warm-up (0.36 g/kg) and halftime (0.48 g/kg), but this did not translate into performance improvements across 120 minutes of simulated match play [11]. Another study assessing recovery involved players completing two 120-minute soccer games, during which they received approximately 0.7 g/kg of CHO or placebo supplements at four recovery time points between games [26]. The findings indicated that CHO supplementation restored performance and muscle glycogen levels, reduced glycerol concentrations, delayed the onset of muscle soreness, and increased inflammation markers.
The first study examining the effects of caffeine supplementation during 120 minutes of exercise found that consuming 200 mg (2.7 mg/kg body mass) of caffeine gum five minutes before extra time improved reaction speed but reduced composure during the additional 30 minutes of simulated match play (Figure 2) [27]. Therefore, in summary, CHO appears to enhance skill-based performance, likely by preserving cerebral blood glucose, while rapid caffeine delivery improves reaction speed but decreases composure during the additional 30 minutes of extra time. However, neither nutritional aid seems to provide benefits for physical performance.
Application
Players and practitioners cannot always predict when matches will progress to extra time, and a late goal in the final stages of the 90 minutes is a realistic possibility. As a result, some practices may need to be reactive rather than pre-emptively implemented. Nevertheless, it is recommended that practitioners strive to anticipate potential challenges by being both well-prepared and pragmatic. Below are some evidence-based suggestions to help practitioners optimise player performance and recovery surrounding extra-time matches. These recommendations should be individualised and applied with context.
- Players who are unable to maintain their running output during this period should be identified and replaced when contemporary competition rules allow for an additional substitution.
- Preventive training programmes should target the development of the eccentric component of the hamstrings to increase player resistance to fatigue-induced torque deficits and increase the muscle length at which eccentric hamstring torque development is attained to reduce hamstring injury susceptibility during the extra-time period.
- Current data suggest that there is little need for players to have additional rest following extra-time matches, and training can resume as normal. However, practitioners should base their decision on whether players should return to training on individual fatigue assessments until further research is undertaken.
- Carbohydrate provision (~60 g/h) is recommended during match intervals, including the 5-minute break before extra time, particularly to maintain players’ skill performance. To optimise engagement, practitioners should ensure that players’ preferred carbohydrate sources are readily available before matches that may go into extra time.
A summary of the findings and practical applications are illustrated below in Figure 3.
References
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